Cyprus, Kos & Rhodes: Civilisations of the Eastern Mediterranean 2026

Introduction to Cyprus

Cyprus played a critical role in Mediterranean trade and conflict over three millennia. It was known in antiquity for its rich deposits of copper. The very word ‘copper’ derives from the Latin expression Cuprium aes (metal of Cyprus). It was an important supplier of not only copper, but also timber for shipbuilding as well as grain and sugar. Cyprus has the remains of one of the oldest trading vessels ever found beneath the Mediterranean, a 4th-century BCE Greek merchant ship now displayed at the Ancient Shipwreck Museum housed inside the Kyrenia Castle. We explore the island’s great ancient trading cities like Kourion, Nea Paphos and Salamis, which all prospered from these exports.

Cyprus has, at times, known local princely rule, and, at others, been absorbed into great empires such as the Hellenistic Empire of Alexander the Great, as well as the empires of Assyria, Rome, Byzantium, Venice and the Ottoman Empire; most conquerors have left not only physical marks on the island, but profound cultural and linguistic influences, some of which survive in Cyprus even today. The country has a rich religious, mythic history, with many ancient Greek sources citing Cyprus as the birthplace of Aphrodite (Venus to the Romans). Additionally, there are many connections to biblical figures. During Roman times, Cyprus was the very first land or province to have a Christian ruler: The Roman Governor (or “Proconsul”) of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, was baptised by the Apostle Paul in Paphos in 45 CE, an event that is described in the Bible. Within Cyprus archaeological sites abound. Along with precious Graeco-Roman sites, in Cyprus’ Troödos Mountains we visit Byzantine monasteries with magnificent wall paintings. During the Crusades, Cyprus became the realm of the French Lusignan dynasty. The country has many Crusader-era castles, modified by Venetians and later by the Ottomans.

Day 1: Thursday 8 October, Arrive Larnaca

• Tour commences at 2.30pm in the foyer of the Sun Hall Hotel
• Welcome Meeting
• Orientation Walk visiting the Church of St Lazarus and Larnaca Fort
• Introductory Lecture: Bronze Age, Greek and Roman Cyprus
• Welcome Dinner

Meeting Point: The tour commences at 2.30pm in the foyer of the Sun Hall Hotel in Larnaca.

We begin with a brief welcome meeting followed by an orientation walk along Larnaca’s seafront to view the well preserved architecture from the British colonial period and the church of St Lazarus, where Lazarus was purportedly buried for the second and last time. We also visit Larnaca Fort which was originally constructed by the Byzantines during the 12th century. Between the years 1382-1398 the small Byzantine fortification located near the harbour was upgraded to a more substantial castle. Today the castle consists of a complex of buildings remodelled by the Ottomans around 1605.

We return to the hotel for an introductory lecture on the history of the island of Cyprus before dining at a local restaurant. (Overnight Larnaca) D

Day 2: Friday 9 October, Larnaca – Khirokitia – Kalavasos-Tenta – Kouklia – Paphos

• Aceramic Neolithic Khirokitia (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
• Aceramic Neolithic Kalavasos-Tenta
• Sanctuary of Aphrodite at Palaipaphos & Archaeological Museum, Kouklia (UNESCO World Heritage Site)

This morning we visit the unique Aceramic Neolithic site of Khirokitia-Vouni (7000 BCE) which comprises the ruins of tightly packed circular houses sited dramatically on the slopes of a hill. Here we encounter archaeological evidence of the beginnings of agriculture in this region and visit reconstructed houses for a glimpse of how Neolithic people lived. One of the most important archaeological sites in the eastern Mediterranean, Khirokitia is one of the earliest examples of collective farming. Inhabitants grew crops, herded sheep and goats, and raised pigs in stone enclosures.

In the village of Kalavasos (8000-7500 BCE) we visit the nearby Aceramic Neolithic settlement of Tenta, which has dates slightly earlier than Khirokitia. It is one of the most significant Neolithic settlements on the island and is considered one of the most meticulously excavated sites in Cyprus. A unique series of wooden walkways allow us to view the fragile round houses from above.

Together with Khirokitia-Vouni, Kalavasos-Tenta provides early evidence for the establishment of sedentary farming communities on the island. These communities developed an original civilisation: the Aceramic “Khirokitia Culture”. The settlement consists of a compound of buildings with simple circular or double circular ground plans built with sun-dried mudbrick superstructures resting on foundations built of stone. There is scant preserved evidence for the roofs, but the little roof material we have might indicate flat roofs that may have been used for sleeping during warmer months and/or workspaces for processing various agricultural products. In some of the round structures with multiple phases of building, the earliest phase indicates that wooden posts were used. Several structures contain pits cut into the red ochre-stained plaster floors that were used for burial of the dead. Burials in spots outside and in between houses is also evidenced at Tenta. The interior of the buildings had double rectilinear piers, which supported a partial upper wooden floor, hearths and benches. In one instance, a red ochre wall painting showing what appear to be two human figures in strange (ceremonial?) poses or gestures with upraised hands, was found on the plastered surface of a central pier. It is by far the earliest known wall painting from Cyprus.

Following lunch at a local taverna in Kouklia we visit the archaeological site of Palaipaphos including the Sanctuary of Aphrodite and its important museum. This is the most famous of the ancient Greek Goddess’ sanctuaries. Its remains date back to the 12th century BCE. It remained a place of worship until the 3rd to 4th centuries CE. The site includes two groups of buildings. The first, the Late Bronze Age shrine of Aphrodite, consists of an open court (temenos), surrounded by a monumental wall comprised of enormous (cyclopean) limestone blocks. Its western and part of its south side are preserved along with a pillared hall. The second group is a Roman shrine, erected c. 100 CE. The most sacred object of the sanctuary was a conical baetyl (sacred stone). The baetyl has been preserved and is now on display in the museum.

Of other Roman remains on the site, only the triclinium (dining room) remains of the ‘House of Leda’ but it has an outstanding mosaic floor (2nd century CE) depicting Leda and the Swan, now on display in the Kouklia Museum. Other remains of ancient Palaipaphos include fortifications and parts of a palace. The Northeast Gate of Palaipaphos occupied the Marchellos hill high above the city’s residential areas. It was one of the city’s strongholds. The city’s first wall and gate buildings were erected in the early Archaic period (c. 750-700 BCE). An imposing building (c. 500 BCE) called the Palace of Hadji Abdulla, with narrow corridors, small rooms and heavy walls sits against the city wall’s inner face. It was probably a Persian governor’s residence.

The Lusignan Manor House (13th c.) was built by the Lusignan kings as a centre of local administration where a royal official controlled the local sugar-cane plantations and refineries. After 1571, the manor became the administrative centre for the Ottoman Kouklia chiflik. Its rooms are arranged in four wings around a central open-air court. Parts of its medieval gate tower and east and south wings are incorporated into later Ottoman buildings. Its original Gothic Hall is one of Cyprus’ finest surviving Frankish secular monuments. The Ottoman east wing now functions as the local archaeological museum containing a rich variety of archaeological material dating from the Chalcolithic to the Early Christian periods. One of the highlights inside the museum is a 5th century BCE limestone sarcophagus featuring carved and painted scenes of ancient Greek mythology, some of them connected to the Homeric epics, the Iliad and Odyssey. This painted sarcophagus is widely considered one of the most impressive archaeological finds in Cyprus from the past 50 years.

In the late afternoon we continue to Paphos were will be based for the next 3 nights. (Overnight Paphos) BLD

Day 3: Saturday 10 October, Paphos – Kourion – Kolossi – Paphos

• Ancient Kourion: Main site incl. mainly Roman-Early Christian buildings & Graeco-Roman Theatre (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
• Sanctuary of Apollo Hylates
• Crusader Fortress of Kolossi & Medieval Sugar Mill excavations

This morning we visit the archaeological site of Kourion, often described as “the most spectacular historical monuments in southern Cyprus”. The city-kingdom, or ‘polis’ in Greek, is perched on the most prominent hill of the area, a natural citadel of sorts, overlooking and controlling the fertile valley of the Cyprus’ largest river, the Kouris. The city was badly damaged in a severe earthquake in 365 CE.

The magnificent Graeco-Roman theatre was built in the 3rd century BCE and its use extended into and beyond the 2nd century CE. East of the theatre are the remains of a prominent building, the ‘House of Eustolios’. Whilst the villa was modest in size, it was well equipped and richly adorned. Its remains include four panels of beautiful 5th-century mosaic floors in the central room and a bathing complex that is located on a higher level north of the building. Along with the House of Eustolios, there are further impressive mosaic floors in the ‘House of Achilles’ and the ‘House of the Gladiators’, with the villas named after the scenes depicted on the mosaics. The remains of the Roman Agora, or ‘Forum’ in Latin, are also visible at the site. This stone-paved open area dates back to the early 3rd century. The Agora is surrounded by porticos with marble columns on both sides, whilst on its northwest side, is an impressive public bath complex and a small temple, the Nymphaeum, dedicated to the water nymphs. An early Christian Basilica at the site dates back to the 5th century, with a separate baptistery on the external northern side. The Stadium of Kourion lies 1km to the west.

Next, we visit the Sanctuary of Apollo Hylates. During the ancient times, the Sanctuary was one of the most important religious centres in Cyprus, where Apollo was worshipped as ‘Hylates’, meaning ‘of the woodlands’. Archaeological investigations suggest that the worship of Apollo dates back to the 8th century BCE and continued until the 4th century CE. The Sanctuary was built in the late Classical or Early Hellenistic period over the ruins of the earlier archaic sanctuary. The majority of the monuments as they can be seen today belong to the site’s 1st-century CE restorations.

Following lunch in a local taverna we visit the impressive Crusader fortress of Kolossi, headquarters of the Knights of St John (Knights Hospitaller). The fortress stands by the vineyards where the Knights made their famous sweet, port-like wine known as Commandaria. We also view the adjacent excavations of a medieval sugar mill. The cultivation of sugar cane was introduced to Cyprus in the 10th century. When the Knights were expelled from the Holy Lands in 1293, they moved first to Cyprus (where they had estates). Here they refined and mechanised the sugar-making process and introduced large scale sugar production. By the 16th century Cyprus was the third largest producer of sugar in the world. Productions ceased around 1610 following competition from the West Indies which used slave labour to produce cheaper sugar. (Overnight Paphos) BLD

Day 4: Sunday 11 October, Paphos

• Tombs of the Kings (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
• Nea Paphos Archaeological Park (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
• Archaeological Museum of the Paphos District
• Monastery of Agios Neophytos
• Lemba Experimental Village

We begin with a visit to the ‘Tombs of the Kings’. These subterranean monumental tombs, dating back to the 4th century BCE, are carved from solid rock, and were possibly the burial sites of Paphos’ aristocrats and high officials (not kings) up to the 3rd century CE. Some of the tombs feature Doric columns and frescoed walls. Some imitate the houses of the living. The Paphians often included Rhodian amphorae among offerings in a burial. The manufacturing stamps on the handles of these amphorae allow experts to date them and therefore the material from the same burial.

Next, we visit the Nea Paphos Archaeological Park, which contains various excavated parts of the Hellenistic and Roman city. Among the site’s most significant remains are four large, elaborate Roman villas. The House of Dionysos, the House of Aion, the House of Theseus and the House of Orpheus – all have superbly preserved mosaic floors. A highlight is an Orpheus mosaic which depicts Orpheus and the beasts together in a single panel. It is further distinguished by an inscription naming the person who commissioned the work, a feature not present in any other Roman mosaic in Cyprus. Excavations have also uncovered an agora, the Asklepieion (Temple to Asklepios, god of medicine) and the Odeon (covered theatre).

Following some free time around the Paphos harbour for lunch, we visit the newly renovated Paphos District Archaeological Museum which reopened in 2021. The museum displays artefacts that were unearthed in the Paphos region, dating from the Aceramic Neolithic period to 1700 CE. The collection includes several new exhibits focusing on recent finds from prehistoric (Aceramic Neolithic–Chalcolithic) period sites, Iron Age material from burial sites near Palaipaphos, skeletal remains recovered from 31 tombs near the eastern seafront of the ancient city of Nea Paphos and several gravestones with texts in the Cypro-Syllabic script. A new display of Hellenistic-Roman amphorae showing various styles mainly from the Dodecanese islands such as Khios, Samos and Rhodes is unique on the island.

We journey to the hills above Paphos to visit the Byzantine Monastery of Agios Neophytos where we view the cave that St Neophytos excavated in a peaceful corner of this beautiful, dramatic landscape in the 12th century. The hermit’s cave, called the ‘Enkleistra’, is decorated with some of the finest examples of Byzantine wall paintings, dating from the 12th to the 15th centuries. The monastery that developed around the cave now houses an excellent ecclesiastical museum.

We end the day with a visit to the Lemba Experimental Village. This long-term project from the University of Edinburgh is a reproduction of a Chalcolithic village on Cyprus. The project includes experiments regarding the study of building materials, pyro-technology, pottery firing and prehistoric cooking methods to name but a few. (Overnight Paphos) BD

Day 5: Monday 12 October, Paphos – Pentalya – Galatarias – Salamiou – Xeros Potamos Valley – Kalopanayiotis

• Full day excursion to the Troödos Mountains by 4WD
• Deserted monastery of Panagia tou Sindi, Pentalya
• Church of Agios Nikolaos Galatarias with 16th-century wall paintings
• Venetian bridges of Xeros Potamos and Dhiarizos Valleys
• Coniferous forests of the Troödos Mountains

Today we journey by 4WDs over some of Cyprus’ most remote tracks, sometimes through both dry and wet riverbeds, into the forests of the Troödos Mountains. We drive along sections of the Dhiarizos and Xeros Potamos river valleys. Our first visit will be to the deserted 16th-century monastery of Panagia tou Sindi. The grand, simple body of the monastery church is topped by an octagonal drum with an interior dome completely concealed from the outside. The church, which sits at the centre of its monastic precinct near Pentalia village on the Xeros Potamos, was restored in the mid-1990s.

We next visit the tiny painted church of Agios Nikolaos Galatarias, which is graced with magnificent 16th-century wall paintings. These include scenes of the Virgin Praying in the Orans position (otherwise known as the ‘Platytera’ scene), a unique version of The Communion of the Apostles, six officiating prelates in ‘polystavria phelonia’, converging in groups of three towards the centre (Cyril, Epiphanios, Khrysostomos, Basilios, Gregorios, Spyridon), The Three Youths in the Fiery Furnace, The Sacrifice of Isaac, The Annunciation, The Hospitality of Abraham, as well as images of St Stephen, St Athanasios, the Archangel Michael, St Paul, St Peter, St Nicholas and St Andrew.

We enjoy lunch in the village of Salamiou, located in the so-called “Wine District” of the upper Limassol and Paphos vineyard areas, between the Dhiarizos and Xeros Potamos valleys. The region also cultivates olive, almond, citrus and fruit trees including apple, peach, apricot and pear trees.

From Salamiou we continue through Xeros Potamos, an abandoned valley whose pristine landscape has seen little change over centuries, to view two old Venetian bridges. These were built in the 16th century and mark an ancient land route used to transport goods to port. We enter the so-called ‘Limestone/Pillow Lava Contact Zone’ to explore fascinating landscape formations and unique settlement patterns, before entering the coniferous forests of the Troödos Massif. (Overnight Kalopanayiotos) BLD

Day 6: Tuesday 13 October, Kalopanayiotis: Solea Valley

• Agios Ioannis Lampadistis & Byzantine Museum (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
• Byzantine Church of Agios Nikolaos tis Stegis (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
• The “Old Village” of Kakopetria
• Church of Archangelos Michail, Pedoulas (UNESCO World Heritage Site)

We spend today exploring the diverse history of the Solea Valley. We begin with a visit to the monastery of Agios Ioannis Lampadistis, situated in the central Troödos in the valley of Marathasa on the east bank of the Setrachos River. In 1985, it was inscribed into the UNESCO World Heritage List with nine other painted Byzantine churches of the Troödos range. The 11th-century katholikon (monastery church) is dedicated to Saint Herakleidios. The monastery functioned until the beginning of the 19th century. The katholikon is a domed cross-in-square structure. In the 12th century the chapel of Agios Ioannis Lampadistis (rebuilt 18th c.) was added to its north, above the Saint’s tomb. In the mid-15th century, the two churches were given a common narthex. During the second half of the 15th century a vaulted chapel was added to the north of that of Agios Ioannis. It became known as the ‘Latin Chapel’ because it was built for the Latins (Catholics). Sometime between the 15th and the 18th century, a pitched timber and tiled roof was built across the whole complex. The wall paintings of the southern church of Agios Herakleidios’ apse include fragmentary 11th- and 12th-century scenes. The rest of the church was painted in the 13th and 14th centuries. Murals include some rare images such as the depiction of the Holy Cloth. The narthex paintings are the work of an artist from Constantinople who fled to Cyprus after the fall of that city (1453). They echo the style of the Byzantine capital. The scenes painted on the walls of the Latin Chapel, (c. 1500), are in the ‘Italo-Byzantine’ style, the most complete set in this style in Cyprus. The katholicon’s wooden templon screen (13th-14th c.), has imitation coats-of-arms. It is the oldest wooden templon (barrier separating the nave from the sacraments at the altar) in Cyprus. The physical remains (i.e. the bones) of Agios Ioannis Lambadistis occupy a precious reliquary. Other monastic buildings include cells, auxiliary rooms and an oil press. One room houses icons from the monastery and other churches in the village of Kalopanayiotis.

We next visit the painted 11th-century UNESCO-designated church of Agios Nikolaos tis Stegis (“St Nicholas of the Roof”). The church is the only surviving Middle Byzantine katholikon in Cyprus. It had a typical Byzantine domed cross-in square plan. A narthex was added in the 12th century. It takes its name from the 13th-century wood and tiled pitched roof covering the original nave and narthex. Its interior walls are covered with wall paintings of various painters whose respective works span a period of more than six centuries. In some cases, individual layers of painting can be observed one on top of the other. The figure style in the first phase, 11th century, reflects the influence of Byzantine miniaturists of the Macedonian renaissance. These murals depict scenes from the Life of Christ, the Raising of Lazarus, the Dormition of the Virgin, and some isolated figures. The second phase, 12th century, includes more sophisticated frescoes in the southwest part of the church and the narthex. Most of the church’s other frescoes date from the late 13th and 14th centuries. The Crucifixion and the Resurrection, the Christ Pantocratoras in the dome, the prophets on its drum and the evangelists on its four pendentives, as well as life size saints in the nave, all date from the mid 14th century.

In Kakopetria, named ‘place of the Bad Rocks’ for the presence of boulders and rock outcrops, we enjoy lunch in a local taverna and have some time at leisure to explore the winding streets of this picturesque medieval mountain village.

In the nearby village of Pedoulas we visit the church of Archangelos Michail decorated with wall paintings in 1474 by a local artist named Minas. The gable-roofed building includes brightly coloured scenes which were restored in 1980 and reflect a move towards the naturalism of the post-Byzantine revival. The wall paintings include depictions of Archangel Michael, the Sacrifice of Abraham, the Virgin and Christ, and a beautiful baptism scene where an unclothed Christ exits the River Jordan with fish swimming at his feet. There is also a wooden templon screen dating from the same period which features a painted coat-of-arms of the medieval Kingdom of Cyprus, considered one of the best-preserved examples of its kind in Cyprus. (Overnight Kalopanayiotis) BLD

Day 7: Wednesday 14 October, Kalopanayiotis – Bellapais – Kyrenia

• Byzantine Church of Panagia tis Asinou (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
• Bellapais Abbey
• Home of Lawrence Durrell, Bellapais (exterior only)

Today we cross the “Green Line” to enter into Northern “Occupied” Cyprus. Before this we visit a third UNESCO listed painted church. The church of Panagia tis Asinou (1099), was once the katholikon of the Monastery of Phorbion, which gives the church its alternative name, Panagia Phorbiotissa. It consists of two parts, the vaulted single-aisled nave and the later 12th-century narthex. The narthex has two semi-circular apses, a type influenced by Constantinople. From the 12th century a steep-pitched timber tiled roof was built over the church. No traces of the rest of the monastic buildings survive. The wall paintings covering the church’s interior, some of the finest to be found on the island, vary in date. The earliest group (1105/6) in the apse and on the west wall, follows the Komnenian style of Constantinople, the artist’s birthplace. This constitutes one of the most important examples of Byzantine art of this period. In the 14th century the apse conch (half dome) collapsed and was rebuilt and redecorated. External buttresses were added and a little later, flying buttresses were constructed at the east end of the north wall. The narthex was decorated with mural paintings soon after its erection during the second half of the 12th century, and in 1332/3 it was redecorated in the French style with images of many donors. The church also has some 17th-century murals.

In the afternoon we visit the abbey and village of Bellapais, home for some years of Lawrence Durrell, who wrote about life in Cyprus between 1953 and 1956 in his book, Bitter Lemons. The site of Bellapais Abbey may have been the early residence of the bishops of Kyrenia, as well as a place of refuge from Arab raids in the 7th and 8th centuries. Aimery de Lusignan founded the monastery around 1200 for the Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre, who had fled Jerusalem after its fall to Saladin in 1187. They called the monastery Abbaye de la Paix (“Abbey of Peace”) from which the corrupted version of the name, Bellapais, evolved when the Venetians replaced the French as rulers of the island. The main building as it can be seen today was built during the rule of King Hugh III (1267-1284). The cloisters and the refectory were added during the rule of King Hugh IV (1324-1359). Following the Ottoman conquest of Kyrenia in 1571, the Ottomans expelled the Premonstratensians and gave the abbey to the Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus, which they appointed as the only legal Christian church on Cyprus. The Church of Cyprus neglected the Abbey, much of which fell into disrepair, though the 13th-century church is still in fine condition. The church remains much as it was in 1976, when the last of the Orthodox faithful had to leave. After exploring the village, we drive on to the historic town of Kyrenia, located on the north coast. (Overnight Kyrenia) BL

Day 8: Thursday 15 October, Kyrenia

• St Hilarion Castle
• Kyrenia Castle overlooking the idyllic harbour of Kyrenia
• Kyrenia Shipwreck Museum containing the wreck of a 4th-century BCE Greek Merchant Ship (reconstructed with original ship’s timbers salvaged from the seafloor during underwater excavations in the early 1970s}
• Walking tour of Kyrenia Old Town
• Time at leisure

This morning we drive out of Kyrenia to view Saint Hilarion Castle, situated on a high outcrop of the Pentadaktylos mountain range. The Castle is situated in an ideal spot overlooking the natural land route or “mountain pass” between Nicosia and the North Coast. Even from the lower reaches of the Castle complex, visitors can enjoy spectacular views over the town of Kyrenia and the surrounding coastline. On exceptionally clear days, one can view the Taurus Mountains on the south coast of the Turkish mainland, some 90-odd kilometres to the north. It is the best-preserved of the three former strongholds in the Kyrenia mountains. The castle is named after an obscure saint from Palestine who fled to Cyprus after the Arab conquest of the Holy Land and created a hermitage where the castle would later stand. From the 11th century, the Byzantines began the fortifications as a defence against Arab pirates raiding the coast. The Lusignans upgraded some sections as a summer residence. Much of the castle was dismantled by the Venetians in the 15th century.

At the eastern end of Kyrenia’s old harbour stands a 16th-century Venetian castle, built on the remains of a Crusader fortification. During an early phase of the Castle’s history, Richard the Lionheart had cause to visit this castle in 1191/2. Today it houses the landmark Kyrenia Shipwreck Museum, whose main exhibit is a 4th-century BCE Greek merchant ship, one of the oldest vessels ever recovered, with its cargo of millstones and wine amphorae from Kos, Samos and Rhodes. Its 14-metre hull, made predominantly of planks cut from Calabrian Pine trees (Pinus brutia), in some cases sheathed in lead, is preserved in a specially controlled environment, together with its amphorae. Roughly 55-60% of the actual ancient ship has been reconstructed using the original wooden planks salvaged from the seafloor. This landmark underwater excavation project was carried out at the very end of the 1960s and the early 1970s by Dr Michael Katsev from the University of Pennsylvania.

We shall then enjoy a walking tour of the Old Town of Kyrenia. Modest remnants of Kyrenia’s long history are speckled throughout the lanes. Two of the major monuments are the Ottoman-era Aga Cafer Pasa Mosque and the dilapidated remains of 16th-century Chysopolitissa Church. During the Lusignan era, the town was protected by fortifications which were dismantled over the years and reused for other building works. The Round Tower on Ziya Rızkı Caddesi is one of the few still-standing pieces of original masonry.

The remainder of the afternoon will be at leisure for you to explore the old cobblestoned town and dine at one if its many harbourside restaurants. (Overnight Kyrenia) B

Day 9: Friday 16 October, Kyrenia – Salamis – Famagusta – Nicosia

• Ancient Salamis Archaeological Site
• Famagusta: St Nicholas Cathedral, Venetian Palace remnants & city walls

Today we drive from Kyrenia to the ancient city-kingdom of Salamis. This extensive site was founded, according to legend, by an ancient Greek hero, the archer Teucer, who fought beside his more famous brother Ajax in the Trojan War. Greek mythology records Teucer trying to return to his ancestral homeland, the Greek island of Salamis, at the end of the war, but Poseidon, god of the sea who favoured the Trojans, caused rough seas and strong winds to scatter the Greek fleet in various directions. Teucer and his ships were blown off course, finally landing on the fine sandy shores of eastern Cyprus, where he founded the city-kingdom of “Salamina” or Salamis, named after his home island in the sea opposite Athens. Archaeology suggests that the port city of Salamis was established in the 11th century BCE, as the harbour of nearby Enkomi was silting up. By the 8th century BCE Salamis was the most important commercial centre on the island. The site today has a number of important remains, including a theatre, public baths and a gymnasium.

We then drive to Famagusta, a city which has developed a distinctly Levantine air since it was taken and occupied by Turkey in 1974. It is now well known for its jewellery, copper work and pottery. Founded around 274 BCE as Arsinoe, it remained a small fishing village until it emerged as a port when Salamis, Cyprus’ former capital, was destroyed. By 1300 Famagusta had become one of the chief emporia of the Eastern Mediterranean, with wealthy merchants and well-endowed churches. It prospered under the Lusignan dynasty who fortified it and built St Nicholas’ Cathedral (now a mosque with a towering minaret). It retains its ramparts and a castle overlooking its harbour. After 1400 Genoese and Venetian merchants settled here and it eventually became part of the great Venetian trading empire. In 1571, it fell to the Ottomans, who ruled here until 1878. We shall visit the old town with its beautiful Venetian Gothic palaces, the Nestorian Church of St George, and the citadel, now called ‘Othello’s Tower’. We also visit the Lala Mustafa Pasa Camii, once the Latin Cathedral of St Nicholas, the finest example of Gothic architecture on the island and throughout the Middle East. It was built between 1298 and 1326 in a very similar style to the Cathedral of Reims, in France. After visiting Famagusta, we drive west across the flat Mesaoria, Cyprus’ central plain, to reach our hotel in Nicosia. (Overnight Nicosia) B

Day 10: Saturday 14 October, Nicosia

• Cyprus Museum
• Büyük Han
• Selimiye Mosque & Bedestan (Church of St Nicholas) – exterior only as closed for renovations

The Cyprus Museum is the principal collection of ancient art and artefacts on the island. It charts the development of Cyprus’ civilisation and material culture from the very earliest phase of the Neolithic to the Early Byzantine period (7th century). The collections consist of pottery, jewellery, stone sculpture, terra-cotta figures and figurines, coins, copper objects and other artefacts, all exhibited in chronological order in the various museum galleries. Pieces typical of ancient Cypriot culture – and of particularly important artistic, archaeological and historical value – include an important collection of cruciform figurines made from the unique blue-green stone called picrolite from the Chalcolithic period, Early Bronze Age pottery from Vouni necropolis on the North Coast, Late Bronze Age golden jewellery from Enkomi, and the iconic 1st-century BCE statue of Aphrodite of Soli.

We then cross the ‘Green Line’ to explore grand monuments of Cyprus’ Ottoman past. We begin with a visit to the Büyük Khan (Great Inn/Caravanserai), built in 1572 by the first Ottoman governor of Cyprus, Muzaffer Pasha. One of the very first building projects undertaken by the new Ottoman rulers of Cyprus, its architecture is similar to numerous Anatolian khans, with a courtyard surrounded by two floors of rooms. The lower rooms were used as shops, storage rooms and offices. The upper floor rooms served as lodging, each fitted with a fireplace with an octagonal chimney. In the middle of the courtyard a domed octagonal miniature mosque rests on eight columns with a fountain for ablutions beneath it. The British used the khan as the Nicosia Central Prison. It was then used as a builders’ yard. Recently restored, it is now a lively place with shops selling handicrafts, galleries and excellent restaurants serving local Turkish specialties.

Following time at leisure for lunch, we view other key sites including the Selimiye Mosque, the Turkish-Cypriot community’s main mosque, where the great festivals of Bayram are conducted. It was formerly the spectacular (Latin) Cathedral of St Sophia (1209-1228) with magnificent external stone carvings, built over the ruins of a previous building. Stylistically, St Sophia resembles medieval French cathedrals. When it was converted to a mosque in 1571, it was re-orientated towards Mecca.

Within the Selimiye quarter also lies the Bedestan which dates from the 6th century when it was built as a small Byzantine Chapel. Between the 12th and 16th centuries it was expanded by the Lusignans and later by the Venetians. Dedicated to St Nicholas, it became the Greek Orthodox Cathedral in the 16th century. Under the Ottomans it was converted to a grain store and covered market. (Overnight Nicosia) B

Day 11: Sunday 18 October, Nicosia – Kiti – Larnaca – Kos

• Panagia Angeloktisi Church, Kiti (Tentative UNESCO World Heritage Site)
• Mosque of Hala Sultan Tekke (Tentative UNESCO World Heritage Site)
• Fly from Larnaca to Kos (via Athens)

This morning we depart Nicosia for Larnaca airport. En route we visit Panagia Angeloktisi Church and the Mosque of Hala Sultan Tekke. The church of Panagia Angeloktisti (“built by the Angels”) was constructed in the 11th century over the ruins of an Early Christian basilica. The apse of the original basilica has survived along with one of the finest pieces of Byzantine art on the island: a rare 6th-century golden mosaic depicting the Virgin Mary and Child between the archangels Michael and Gabriel, a conventional Byzantine apse scene known in Greek as the “Platytera”.

Hala Sultan Tekke is located on the shores of a Salt Lake. This mosque was built next to the tomb of Umm Haram, the aunt of the Prophet Mohammad and one of his early followers. (Some historical sources refer to her as Mohammad’s wet nurse, instead of the aunt.) According to local legend, Umm Haram died near this spot in 639 CE when she was riding on a donkey near the shore of the Larnaca Salt Lake: a snake emerged from the grasses, startling the donkey, and the poor lady was thrown off and landed hard, tragically breaking her neck. The Hala Sultan Tekke is today considered by many Muslims to be the fourth most important site in Islam after Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem.

In the early afternoon we fly from Larnaca to the Greek island of Kos which is part of the Dodecanese island chain in the southeastern Aegean Sea. (Overnight Kos) B

Day 12: Monday 19 October, Kos

• Casa Romana
• Sanctuary of Asclepius
• Ruins of the Basilicas of Agios Stephanos, Kólpos Kefálou Bay
• Castle of Antimachia

We begin with a visit to the Casa Romana which was built during the late 2nd century and early 3rd century CE on the ruins of an earlier Hellenistic house. Following extensive renovations, the house now provides a wonderful insight into how a wealthy Koan official and his family lived. It includes 36 rooms and 3 atria which are decorated with mosaic floors, most of which date back to the 3rd century CE.

At the top of a verdant hill, three kilometres to the southeast of Kos Town lies the sanctuary of Asclepius, an ancient medical centre. It dates from the first half of the 3rd century BCE and was built to honour the god of health and medicine, Asclepius, after the death of the famous ancient Greek physician, Hippocrates (460–380 BCE). The site is laid out in three terraces. On the lowest terrace there is a stoa and a complex of Roman baths dating from the 3rd century CE. On the second terrace we see the remains of a large altar which was built around the middle of the 4th century BCE and is one of the earliest structures in the Asklepieion. To the west of the altar there is a Temple of Asclepius dating from the 3rd century BCE and to the east of the altar there is a Roman temple in the Corinthian order from the 2nd century CE. On the third and final terrace lies the remains of the Doric Temple of Asclepius from the 2nd century BCE.

Following lunch at a local restaurant overlooking Kólpos Kefálou Bay we walk to the Agios Stefanos ruins, which are situated in a spectacular setting of a small peninsula that extends into Kamari Bay. Here we tour the ruins of two early basilica churches which date from the late 5th century and mid-6th century. The foundations of both churches are remarkably preserved allowing us to see all the components typical of churches of the time.

Before returning to Kos town we visit the Castle of Antimachia. This imposing fortification was begun in the early 14th century by the Catholic military Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem, or the ‘Knights Hospitaller.” The Antimachia stronghold was formidable, having only one entrance on its inland face. It took decades to build, coming to completion around 1494 as evidenced by an inscription that can still be read above the entrance gate, next to a carved emblem of the Order. Inside the fortress there are two Venetian churches, as well as remains of houses, cisterns and other utilitarian features. (Overnight Kos) BL

Day 13: Tuesday 20 October, Kos – Bodrum – Kos

• Morning ferry from Kos to Bodrum
• Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, Bodrum Castle
• Mausoleum of Halicarnassus
• Time at leisure
• Afternoon Ferry from Bodrum to Kos

Today we make a special excursion to the Turkish mainland to visit Bodrum, the ancient city of Halicarnassus – which was home to one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Note: No visa is required for day visitors from Kos. You will just need to show your return ticket to the immigration officer who will check your passports upon arrival.

Dominating Bodrum’s harbour is the Castle of St. Peter, begun in 1402 by the Knights Hospitaller as a hospital for pilgrims to Jerusalem, which today houses the Museum of Underwater Archaeology. Displays include finds from a wreck dating from 1350 BCE that was carrying, possibly on royal consignment, copper and tin ingots, amphorae packed with terebinth resin used in making perfume, as well as fragments of scrap gold and silver jewellery that were intended for reuse. From another wreck, an early medieval merchant ship discovered in the 1970s and known as the ‘Glass Wreck’, comes a display of intact glass cups and bottles. The greater part of this vessel’s cargo appears, however, to have been over a million shards of broken glass, which were also being transported for recycling.

Nearby lies the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus. Once this edifice stood over 50 metres high, but today only the foundations remain. The Knights Hospitaller used the Mausoleum as a quarry to build their castle. When the site was excavated in the middle of the 19th century moreover, the surviving frescos and statuary discovered by C. T. Newton were sent to the British Museum.

There will be some time at leisure to explore Bodrum’s marina, bazaar and white-plastered backstreets before returning to Kos by ferry. (Overnight Kos) B

Day 14: Wednesday 21 October, Kos – Rhodes

• Kos agora
• Kos Archaeological Museum
• Plane Tree of Hippocrates & exterior of Neratzia Castle
• Afternoon ferry from Kos to Rhodes

We begin our final day on Kos with a walk to visit the agora, which was the market and meeting place, the commercial and social centre of the ancient city. Kos’ agora is huge and located near the harbour, which can be seen as an indication of how important sea-trading was to the city’s economy. Excavations have shown that the oldest section of the agora was constructed in the mid-4th century BCE. During our walking tour we will see parts of the city fortifications and ancient port, remains of temples to Hercules and Aphrodite, and of course, ruins of numerous shops.

Next, we visit the Kos Archaeological Museum whose displays tell the history of Kos from prehistory through to the Ottoman era.

Following time at leisure for lunch, we walk to the port, stopping to see the Plane Tree of Hippocrates, under which legend says Hippocrates himself taught medicine to his students. We also view the exterior of the Neratizia Castle, another fortress that was largely built by the Knights Hospitaller during the 15th century, before departing by ferry for the island of Rhodes.  (Overnight Rhodes) B

Introduction to Rhodes

Rhodes, known as the ‘island of roses’, can be considered a ‘crucible’ of Eastern Mediterranean history. The third largest of the Greek islands, Rhodes is graced with two important concentrations of monuments: the city of Rhodes and the citadel of Lindos. In the early Iron Age the island was divided into three states. In 408 BCE, these cities unitied with the port-city and harbour of Rhodes as the capital. Rhodes was later famous for the colossus that supposedly straddled its entrance, another of the seven wonders of the world. When the other Hellenic republics were absorbed into the empire of Alexander the Great, and then into Hellenistic successor states of the Seleucids and Ptolemies, Rhodes retained its independent status. It grew rich as a major participant in maritime trade linking the Aegean, Egypt and Syria. Seleucid hostility to the concept of the autonomous city-state, however, made Rhodes uneasy and in the 1st century BCE the island appealed to Rome for protection. During the Roman period the development of more southerly maritime trade routes from Italy to the Levant decreased Rhodes’ importance and the island had become somewhat of a backwater when St Paul visited it in the 1st century CE.

Rhodes remained outside the main currents of Mediterranean life until the Crusades, when it became one link in a chain of fortresses and ports that connected the Crusader kingdoms of the Levant with the western Mediterranean. In the 14th century the Knights Hospitaller, expelled from the Holy Land by the Egyptian Mamluks, sought refuge in Rhodes. Rhodes became the Order’s stronghold and the Knights built a number of beautiful palaces there for their different Langues (‘tongues’: the national groups into which the Order was divided). Then, in 1503, the Ottoman sultan Suleyman the Magnificent forced the Knights to leave after a six-month siege.

Day 15: Thursday 22 October, Medieval City of Rhodes (UNESCO World Heritage Listed)

• Orientation walk: Harbour of Mandraki
• Palace of the Grand Masters
• Archaeological Museum, Hospital of the Order of the Knights of St John

This morning we visit Rhodes’ Venetian harbour, Mandraki, where we will examine the medieval harbour and fortifications, and discuss the controversy over the original location and size of the famous Colossus of Rhodes, the 3rd century BCE statue of Helios, the Sun God.

From there we continue our walking tour of the old city which was originally laid out in the 5th century BCE by the architect Hippodamus of Miletus. His fame rests on his reputed invention of the urban grid plan, seen at Miletus, Priene and other West Anatolian cities. Modern Rhodes has some buildings greatly influenced by the Italian fascist architecture of the late 1930s but is dominated by the old fortified medieval town. Of particular interest is the so-called ‘Street of the Knights’, where the Gothic palaces of the Langues form marvellous late medieval streetscapes. Each palace has an impressive arched doorway surmounted by the emblem of its particular Langue.

The tour highlight is the impressive medieval Palace of the Grand Masters. The building was begun in 1440 by Grand Master de Lastic with money bequeathed by his predecessor, Fluvian, and completed in 1489 by Grand Master d’Aubusson.

Following some time at leisure for lunch, we visit Rhodes’ Archaeological Museum, housed in the Hospital of the Knights, which was built in 1440 and completed by the Grand Master d’Aubusson (1476–1503). The museum displays pottery, jewellery and figurines from the Iron Age tombs of the island’s three cities, a good collection of Classical, Hellenistic and Roman sculpture, and a series of Hellenistic to Early Christian mosaics. Particularly impressive are the funerary slabs from the period of the Knights with relief representations of the dead or of their coats of arms. (Overnight Rhodes) B

Day 16: Friday 23 October, Rhodes – Lindos – Kamiros – Rhodes

• Medieval village of Lindos and ancient Acropolis
• Ancient Kamiros

We depart early this morning to visit the medieval village of Lindos and the ancient acropolis above it. We climb to the acropolis via the monumental staircase and propylaea (entrance building) dating to the Hellenistic period, passing an unusual carved rock relief showing an ancient Rhodian ship. Within the acropolis, which was fortified during the Middle Ages with impressive walls, is the fine Doric temple to Athena, where the offerings table and base of the cult statue can still be seen. The temple also affords stunning panoramas of the island, including a view of Agios Pavlos, the place where St Paul is said to have landed.

Following some time at leisure for lunch we turn inland and cross the island to the ancient city of Kamiros, located on the north coast, approximately 50 kilometres south-west of Rhodes Town. Kamiros, along with Lindos and Ialissos, was one of the three early city-states on Rhodes. The western and central parts of the island belonged to Kamiros. Its agricultural production, made possible by its fertile, loamy soils, formed the basis of its prosperity. The oldest evidence of settlement in the wider area of Kamiros known to this day, namely Kamirida, date back to the Mycenaean times and come from the cemetery of chamber-like tombs in the village of Kalavarda, a few kilometres north-east of Kamiros. Twice destroyed by earthquakes (in 226 and 142 BCE), the main remains at Kamiros date to the Hellenistic period, although some Classical elements are also visible. The Hellenistic city was built on three levels with various buildings and monuments including an agora, a Doric fountain house, a reservoir and a stoa. The acropolis commands fabulous views across the sea to the coast of Turkey. Below are the reasonably well preserved remains of a town with all its ancient conveniences.

In the late afternoon we return to Rhodes Town where the evening is at leisure. (Overnight Rhodes) B

Day 17: Saturday 24 June, Rhodes – Ialyssos – Rhodes

• Monte Smith (Temple of Apollo, Old Stadium)
• Monastery of Philerimos, Ialyssos
• Time at leisure in Rhodes Town
• Farewell Dinner at Paneri Restaurant

We begin this morning by exploring St. Stephen’s Hill, known locally as Monte Smith, site of the acropolis of ancient Rhodes. It has a 3rd century BCE Hellenistic stadium that hosted the athletic events of the Alioi Games held in honour of the sun-god Helios. At its summit you will encounter the Temple of Apollo, patron deity of the city. The bizarre name of Monte Smith derives from the name of a British Admiral, Sir Sydney Smith, who used the location in 1802 as a lookout from which to observe the manoeuvres of Napoleon’s Egyptian fleet.

Nearby we also visit Philerimos (Filerimos), a hilltop monastery built by the Byzantines in the 5th century CE on the ruins of ancient Ialyssos.

We return to Rhodes Town for an afternoon at leisure before re-meeting in the evening to share a farewell meal together at the celebrated Paneri Restaurant. (Overnight Rhodes) BD

Day 19: Sunday 15 June, Depart Rhodes

• Tour concludes in the morning
• At leisure/Check out

Our tour ends in Rhodes after breakfast. In the morning you will be required to check out of the hotel. Please contact ASA if you require assistance with a transfer to Rhodes Airport. B